Structure and Function of the Human Body week 10

Answer each of the questions below using information gathered from your readings, lectures, and outside research. You should provide at least a paragraph response for each of the questions.
1. Describe the role of the following organs within the digestive system: stomach, liver, salivary glands, small intestine and gallbladder. Also, describe what complications could occur within the functions of the digestive system if each listed organ was damaged or dysfunctional.

Our digestive system provides the body a means to transfer nutrition from the external environment into the cellular level in order to sustain life.

Salivary glands, controlled by the autonomic nervous system, is located in the oral cavity. It's main role is to secrete saliva in the oral cavity. There are three pairs of salivary glands. Parotoid savary gland lies under the skin on each side of the mandible. These glands secrete amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starches. The parotoid duct implies empties into the vestibile at the level of the second upper molar. The sublingual duct is (located under the tongue) between the mucus membrane of the floor of the mouth and the submandibular duct is located in the floor of the mouth. Both the sublingual and submandibular glands secrete saliva that contains more buffers and mucus. (p. 539-40)

Saliva (mucus) consists of 99.4% water, mucins and an assortments ions, buffers, and waste products and enzymes. The mucines absorbs water and form the mucus. During meal time, the saliva lubricates the mouth along with dissolved chemicals that stimulates the taste buds. The mucus coats the food, and reduces friction making swallowing easier. The continuous flow of saliva also flushes and cleans the oral surfaces while controlling oral bacteria through salivary antibodies (IgA and lysozyme). The pH of saliva during meal time raises from slightly acidic (pH 6.7) to more alkaline (pH 7.5).

Radiation and emotional distress can cause a reduction of salivary secretions. This then can create an unhealthy oral cavity environment due to increased bacteria population. Over time, the complications caused by the decreased salivary secretions are infection and erosion of the teeth and gums. (p.540)


The stomach is another component of the digestive system which is located within the left upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity. It is a muscular J-shaped organ that is positioned inferior of the esophagus and superior to the small intestines. There are four primary functions the stomach has to offer. First, it becomes a temporary storage for ingested food. Food is stored in the stomach while it is physically broken down for chemical digestion. Second, it provides a mechanical means to break down ingested food. The stomach is an area where there is a lot of mixing of the food, so added strength to the muscularis external layer is needed. Instead of two layers in the muscular external, the stomach's has three layers, a longitudinal layer, a circular layer, and an inner oblique layer. Thirdly, it provides an acidic environment that causes a break down of the chemical bonds in food through the actions of acids and enzymes. The pH of 2.0 in the stomach makes the environment acidic. The ingested foods, mixed with stomach's secretion, produces an acidic soupy mixture of partially digested food called chyme. Lastly, the stomach is responsible for the production of the intrinsic factor, a compound necessary for the absorption of vitamin B-12. (p.544)

Gastric ulcers is one complication that can occur in the stomach. Ulcers are caused either bacterium Helicobacter pylori or by medication such as aspirin that irritates the mucus membrane. This irritation causes erosion of the mucus membrane; which either creates an excessive production of acid or an inadequate production of alkaline mucus that defends the epithelium against the acid. Treatment can lean toward a medication such as cimetidine, a drug that inhibits acidity in the stomach, or it can be treated with antibiotics for bacterial infection depending on the cause. Meal time still would include a complete diet, but staying away from high fat, high acidic foods like tomatoes, and spicy foods. In atropic gastritis, there is chronic inflammation in the stomach which produces a lower acid production capability. When this happens, the intrinsic factor is affected , trapping vitamin B12 within the food. People in this case would need to take a vitamin B12 supplement.

The small intestines main function is in the digestion and absorption of nutrients. Ninety percent of nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine. The duodenum is the segment in the small intestine that receives chyme from the stomach and digestion secretions from the pancreas. It also contains duodenal glands which secrete alkaline mucus that helps buffer acids in the chyme. The bulk of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption occurs in the jejunum. The small intestines receives and raises the pH of the materials arriving from the stomach. Most of the important digestive processes are completed in the small intestine where the final products of digestion (simple sugars, fatty acids, amino acids) are absorb along with most of the water contents. (p. 548)

Crohn's disease is one complication found in the small intestine. It is a chronic auto-immune inflammatory disorder that occurs in intervals active (flares) disease altering in periods of remission . Treatment varies from special diets, medication like Cortisone and surgery (possible ileostomy). Crohn's disease is not curable. Treatment only covers the symptoms caused by the disease progression. Over time, the inflammation of the small intestine can result in scaring and thickening of the walls of the affected structure. With this disease, absorption of nutrition can lead to difficulties. The inflammation causes damages to the lining of the intestine so that it cannot absorb nutrients, water, and fats from the food eatened. This can result in malnutrition, dehydration, vitamin and mineral deficiencies. (emedicinehealth, 2011)

The liver is an essential part to the digestive process. The liver has three functional roles: metabolic regulation, hematological, and bile production. The basic functional unit of the liver is its 100,00 lobules. Within each lobule there are liver cells called hepatocytes .
In metabolic regulation, the liver's main goal is to regulate the composition of the circulating blood. It does this through the hepatocytes. The hepatocytes extract and absorbed nutrients or toxins from the blood prior to reaching the general circulation. Hepatocytes also monitors/adjusts the circulating levels of organic nutrients. Excesses are removed and stored; while deficiencies are corrected by utilizing stored reserves or synthesizing the necessary compounds. Toxin and metabolic wastes are removes for later inactivation and excretion. Fat-cell vitamins such as A,D,K, and E are absorbed and stored. ( p.555-6)

With hematological regulation, the liver becomes the blood reservoir. As the blood passes through the liver, phagocytes (kupffer ) cells remove spent/or damaged RBCs, debris, and pathogens from the circulation. The hepatocytes synthesizes plasma proteins ( which determines blood's osmotic concentration), transports nutrients, and makeup the clotting and complement systems. ( p.556)

The bile production is derived from the hepatocyte secretions. Bile may either flow into the common bile duct, which empties into the duodenum, or enters into the cystic duct, which leads into the gallbladder. Bile consist of water, ions, bilirubin (pigment from hemoglobin), cholesterol, and bile salts (an assortment of lipids). The bile's water and ions dilute and buffer acids in chyme as it enter the small intestine. The bile salts (synthesized from cholesterol) are required for normal digestion and absorption of fats. Bile breaks down large lipid droplets into smaller lipid particles in order for the digestive enzymes to become more effective. ( p.556)



After revealing the main functions the liver provides, any condition that can damage or make the liver dysfunctional can be life threating to the body. One example is hepatitis which is an inflammation of the liver producing swelling in the liver. There are many virus that can cause hepatitis depending in how it is transmitted, but the main ones are A, B, and C. If left untreated, in some cases hepatitis can lead to cirrhosis which is a progressive degenerate disease that results in the loss of organ/tissue function due to scar tissue. Further progression of the disease could eventually lead to liver failure. Unlike a healthy liver, the liver would not be able fight infection, clean the blood and help digest food and store energy; thus, leaving the body, toxic.

The gallbladder is a hollow pear-shape organ that stores and concentrates bile made in the liver. Bile is secreted continuously (approx1 liter/day); however, it is only release into the common duct to the duodenum when fatty foods enters the digestive tract and through the stimulation of a duodenum's hormone CCK (cholecystokinin). The CCK stimulates contractions in the walls of the gallbladder, releasing the bile into the small intestine. In the absence of CCK, bile leaving the liver through the common duct is redirected into the cystic duct delivering bile into the gallbladder for storage.
The concentration of bile changes its composition while in the gallbladder's storage. Water is absorbed and the bile salts along with other bile components become increasing concentrated. Sometimes bile salts become too concentrated through stasis (due to no-fat diet) or infection which alters the ratio of bile salts and water content, forming gallstones. ( pg.550, 556-7)

Gallstones can be a complication of the gallbladder. Gallstones can develop when bile contains too much cholesterol, too much bilirubin, or not enough bile salts, or when the gallbladder does not completely empty or emptied enough. Most people are unaware they have a problem. If a person is asymptomatic, no treatment necessary. Only those with sever discomfort or repeated attacks from gallstones receive treatment. This usually requires surgery for removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy). People can live without their gallbladder because bile is made continuously and the gallbladder is just a reservoir for bile. If any change in life style it would be in diet (low-fat) and frequently of meals. (mayoclinic.com, ) ( p.557)


Explain how the small intestine’s anatomy is geared to increase surface area. Why is increased surface area important in the small intestine?

The length of the small intestine is approximately 20 feet long. The intestinal lining consist of transverse folds (plicae circulares) composed of multitude of finger like projections called villi.
These structures are covered with simple columnar epithelium that are covered with microvilli, in other words the epithelium looks like bristles on a hair brush. If the small intestine was smooth and simple , the total absorption area would be about 3.6 feet long. Instead, the small intestine is composed of multiple arrangement of the intestinal wall, which consist of plicae circulares layered with villi; villi is layered with epithelium; epithelium that is layered with microvilli; thus makes the total increase absorption area approximately 2,200 feet.


3. Describe the role of each of the four layers in the stomach including the mucus cells and parietal cells of the mucosa layer.

The four layers of the stomach are the mucosa layer, submucosa layer, muscularis externa, and serosa layer.
The mucosa layer of the stomach is the inner lining consisting of mucosal (glandular secreted) membrane that is composed of simple columnar epithelium dominated by mucus cells. The role of these mucus cells this is to secrete alkaline mucus that covers and protects epithelial cells from acids, enzymes, and abrasive material. Gastric pits are shallow depressions open onto the gastric surface. The mucus cells at the base of each gastric pit divide and replace the superficial cells of the mucus epithelium which is then shed into the chyme. The gastric pit corresponds with the gastric glands which secrete the gastric juice. The cells that produce the components of the gastric juice as the parietal cells. The parietal cells secrete the intrinsic factor and hydrochloric acid. The intrinsic factor is needed to facilitate the absorption of Vitamin B-12 across the intestinal lining. The hydrochloric acid lowers the pH of the gastric juices which keeps the stomach pH contents at approximately 2. The acidity of the stomach kills micro organisms, helps break down plant cell walls, and connective tissues in meat and also activates the enzyme secretions of the chief cells. The main purpose of chief cells is the production of the enzyme pepin (a protein digesting enzyme) Within both the mucosa and sub-mucus are distinct ridges or folds called rugae. The folds increase the surface area for absorption and permits expansion (flattens out) for food. Ducts between the rugae opens onto the epithelial surface and carries the gastric glands that secrete digestive juices.

The sub-mucosa layer is the second layer that is composed loose connecting tissue which contain large blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers( sensory neurons and parasympathetic motor neurons). Its main role is in controlling and coordinating contraction of the smooth muscle layers and in regulating secretion.
Muscularis externa makes up the third layer of the stomach. This layer consist of bands of smooth muscle cells which contains a longitudinal layer, a circular layer, and an inner oblique layer. These three portions of the muscularis externa provides strength and assists in the mixing and churning essential to forming chyme.

The serosa layer (visceral peritoneum) covers the outer surface of the stomach. It has no role except to stabilize the stomach in the peritoneal cavity.

4. We discussed the endocrine role of the pancreas when we studied the endocrine system but it has an exocrine role within the digestive system. Please explain what type of dysfunction would occur if the pancreas didn’t secrete its pancreatic juices. What type of dysfunction would occur if someone had to have their gallbladder removed?

The pancreas is primary an exocrine organ that produces digestive buffers and enzymes. The four enzymes: carbohydrases (digest surgars and starches), lipases (break down lipids), nucleases (break down nucleic acids), and proteases (break protein apart). Specific enzymes are the pancreatic amylase (breaks down carbohydrates), pancreatic lipase (group of nucleases and several proteases), and trypsin and chymotrypsin are all part of the proteases enzymes Proteases accounts for 70% of the enzyme production. The main buffer is sodium bicarbonate which increases the pH of the chyme. (pg 552-553)

If the pancreas becomes dysfunctional, these pancreatic and enzymes would be missing in the duodemum. Inadequate digestion would take place. Your sugars, starches, fats, and proteins would be incompletely digested, because of the missing enzymes. In pancreatitis, inflammation occurs from blockage of excretory ducts, bacterial infection, or drug reaction (alcohol), This can cause injury in the exocrine cells. The lysosomes within the damaged cells then activated the pancreatic enzyme which attack the normal pancreatic cells and there is a chain reaction which produces destruction. In most cases, with treatment, this can be reversed/stopped. However, there are a few cases where this auto-digestion continues and destroys the organ. In that case, two conditions result: diabetes mellitus that requires insulin and nutrient malabsorption where oral pancreatic enzymes need to be taken. (pg 563)

In the case of the gallbladder, people can live without their gallbladder, because the only function of the gallbladder is a reservoir for bile from the liver. Bile will continue the flow into the small intestines without a problem. It might be a little more or less depending on the food quantity and substance.


5. What is the importance of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)? Carbohydrate metabolism is our body’s main source of ATP production. Explain where carbohydrate metabolism occurs in the cell, what additional “ingredient” is needed and what waste product is produced in this process.
The primary function of ATP is the transfer energy from one location to another, not the long term storage of energy. The energy a cell produces in the form of ATP supports cell growth division, contraction, secretion, and all functions that vary from cell to cell and tissue to tissue. Cells in the body generate most ATP through aerobic (oxygen-required) metabolism in the mitochondria ;however,the initial steps occur through glycolysis (anaerobic -with out oxygen) in the cystosol of the cytoplasm. Oxygen is the key ingredient needed in mitochondria energy production. Aerobic (oxygen) metabolism in the mitochondria provide most (95%) of the energy needed to keep cells alive. Most of the energy deriving from carbohydrates are produced in the mitochondria. Energy is stored and transferred in a high energy bond of ATP in order to move from place to place. The by-product of areobic metabolism is carbon dioxide. Glycolysis involves enzymatic steps that breakdown glucose to pyruvic acid molecules. These molecules are then absorbed by the mitochondria. Glycolysis (anarobic) can also continue to provide ATP when the oxygen availability is limited for mitochondrial production. This usually occurs during the body's peak activity, such in the case of a long distance runner. The body cannot provide enough O2 to maintain the metabolism in the metochondria. This the time where glycolysis becomes the prime source for ATP. (p.77, 210, 577)
References
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/crohn_disease/article_em.htm#Crohn%27s%20Disease%20Overview
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/gallstones/DS00165/DSECTION=causeshttp://www.mayoclinic.com/health/gallstones/DS00165/DSECTION=causes

Structure and Function of the Human Body week 5

Explain how adaptation relates to our thermoreceptors and touch receptors. What is referred pain and how could it be dangerous?
Thermoreceptors and touch receptors are both nerves. The thermoreceptors Referred pain is when the perception of pain coming from parts of the body that aren't actually stimulated. It's dangerous, because you don't know where the real dangerious areas really point too. If you didn't have touch receptors, you wouldn't know what information like location, shape, size, texture and movement. (pg 309)
Explain why olfaction and gustastion are considered “chemical” special senses (think of how these two senses work). Explain the importance of hair cells with the sense of hearing and equilibrium. Lastly, compare and contrast rod and cone cells' location, function, and overall amount.
Both olfaction and gustastion occurs as dissolved chemicals stimulate olfactory receptors. The hiding of an odorant changes the permeability of the receptor membrane, producing action potentials. The gustatory are actually chemically based tasted receptors of the tongue which tastes chemicals. Taste buds have gustatory cells which tends to slither microvilli to the taste poor. The poors are more sensitive to acids. (pg 313- 315)
Hair cells are simple mechanoreceptors which are complex structure of the inner ear and the different arrangements of accessory structures of the inner ear and the different arrangements of accessory structures. (pg 329)
Rod cells do not discriminate among colors of light. They help us see in dim light. Cone c ells provide color vision. Cones give humans sharper colors. Rod cells are found on the side while cones are found on the bottom (pg 320)
Explain how the body maintains homeostasis of serum (blood calcium) levels through the use of the thyroid and parathyroid glands.
Fibrin is large insoluble strands. The fibrin fibers interact and provide framework for blood clots. The steps not taken to prevent clotting in a plasma sample, fibrinogen will convert to fibrin. The fluid left over is called serum. The liver synthesizes more than 90% of the plasma proteins including albumins and fibrinogen and globulins. Antibodies are produced by the plasma cells and fibrinogen and plasma proteins clot the blood preserving homeostasis of serum (pg 384)
Explain the role the hypothalamus and pituitary gland have in the regulation of the endocrine system. What would happen if there were no negative feedback control on growth hormone and thyroid hormone?
The hormonal secretion is controlled by negative feedback mechanisms. The stimulus triggers the production of hormone worse direct or indirect effects that reduce the intensity of the stimulus. The simplest case, endocrine activity may be controlled by humoral stimuli - changes in the composition of the exetracelluar fluid. The control of blood calcium levels are controlled by two hormones, parathyroid hormone and calcitinin. The calcium levels are the blood decline, parathyroid hormone is released and the response of target cells elevate blood calcium levels. The blood rise, calcitonin is released and the response of target cells lower blood calcium levels. The endocrine activity is also controlled by hormonal stimuli or changes in the levels of circulating stimuli. The hypothalamus provides the highest level of endocrine control by acting as an important link between the nervous and endocrine systems. (pg 350).
The control of the calcitonin secretion is independent of the hypothalamus gland and pituitary gland. C cells produce hormone calcitonin. Physiologic effects of growth hormone are direct effects and indirect effects. The glands within the endocrine system simulate release of a hormone from thyroid glands are shut off. If too much negative feedback occurred there would be hormone imbalance , because too much of the hormone would be. The hypothalamus secretes TRH. This causes the tituitary to release THS. THS will cause the thyroid hormone to secrete T4. In many parts of the world, inadequate dietary iodine intake leads to the inability to synthesize thyroid hormones. The calcitonin inhabits osteoclasts and stimulates calcium excretion in at the kidneys. C-cells are endocrine cells sandwiched between the follicle cells and their basement membrane. If there was too much negative feedback, the kidneys would fail. If negative feedback occurs, there could be a loss of bone mass. Calcitonin is most important during childhood in controlling muscle cells and nerve cell activities. Thyroid hormones are stored in the colloid of follicle. There would be too much energy utilization, oxygen consumption, growth and development for most cells. There would be more calcium concentration in body fluids in the bones and kidneys.
Explain how the nervous system, general senses, and endocrine system work together to maintain homeostasis. Remember the 3 steps of the nervous system function: afferent (input/sensory) information, analysis, and efferent (output/motor) information. This will be helpful along with remembering what homeostasis is.
The nervous system regulates the breathing, urinary, and digestive systems. The heart rate and breathing are controlled by the nervous system. Hormones are less energetically expensive, the lymphatic system ability to fight infection. Second, the respiratory system maintains oxygen and pH levels. The exposure to drugs, alcohol and toxins kick the excretory functions and test these substances to accumulate damage of the body's cells. A body that lacks nutrients will induce the body to compensate or become sick.
[important]
Make sure you provide citations and references for your answers!

Read chapters 9 - 10

http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/endocrine.html
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathph http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4566459_human-body-maintain-homeostasis_.html ys/endocrine/hypopit/gh.html
http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4566459_human-body-maintain-homeostasis_.html http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4566459_human-body-maintain-homeostasis_.html

Structure and Function of the Human Body week 3

Bone is a very active tissue. Please explain the pathway of how the bone cells get nutrients and oxygen from the blood vessels using the following terms: Periosteum, endosteum, lacunae, lamellae, canaliculi, perforating canals, osteon, Haversian canal (central canal) and trabeculae.
There are two types of bone tissue, compact bone (solid dense) and spongy bone (bone separated by spaces). Example, the humerus bone consists of compact bone (diaphysis and spongy bone) at each end or epiphysis. The periosteum is the outer layer of the bone where tendons and ligaments are attached; whereby, attaching muscle to bone and bone another. The main function of periosteum isolates bones to surrounding tissues provides a route to circulatory and nervous supply. It has an influence of growth and repair of the bone. The endosteum is found in the inner surface of the bone. The function of the endosteum is growth and repair of the bone. In compact bones, the functional unit is the osteon. Within the osteon, the bone cells (osteocytes) are layered around a central canal called haversian that contains some blood vessels. The bone cells are found in small pockets called lacunae which are found between calcifid matrix which is called lamellae which are cylindrical. The inter-connections inside the matrix have small channels called canaliculi that connect the lacunae with the nearby blood vessels. Nutrient and waste products are exchanged from the osteocytes through diffusion in the extracelluar fluid that surround the cells. Perforating canals provide a highway and linkage from the central canal to the periosteum and the marrow cavity.
In the spongy bone, has no osteons. Instead, the spongy bone consists of trabeculae which are lamellae that are shaped as thin rods that create an open network. Nutrients and waste are diffused between marrow and ostreocytes through small channels (canaliculi) that extend from the lacunae of the spongy bone end, where the triabeculea is exposed.

There are three main types of canals including canaliculi, Haversian canals and Volkmann's canals.

The canaliculi would join osteocytes. Second, the thicker canals are Haversian canals. In the center of the osteone are longitudinal directly through the bone. Third, the transverse tunnels are Volkmann canals. The Volkmann canals will go into the bone from the exterior; therefore, allowing vascularization to go into the osseous tissue.

Bone tissue being hard, it requires canals or tunnels to get the osteocytes nutrients to the cells. Osteocytes have long protrusions of their cytoplasm within the tunnels that contact other osteocytes. The Osteocytes are connected at these unions which can transport nutrient.
In general compare and contrast the three functional classifications of joints according to movement. What are two characteristics that make synovial joints unique and different from other joints? Which joint is stronger-the shoulder or hip joint and why is it?

Two characteristics that make synovial joints unique is they are found at the end of long bones. They are also unique in that they have fibrous joint capsule surrounding it. The hip joint is stronger, because the femur is the largest bone in the body and the hip joint was made for strength and stability. In comparison the shoulder has a higher range of movement; therefore, is weaker at the joint. (pg 174)

Please explain how the muscle cell’s anatomy of the cytoplasm is unique from other cells.
Cytoplasm has cytosol, which is dissolved in nutrients, ions, soluble, and insoluble proteins. Cytosol would contain higher concentration of potasiums ions and lower sodium ions. Likewise, extracellular fluid contains lower potassium-ion concentration. Cytosol contains high concentration of dissolved proteins like enzymes which regulate metabolic operations. It gives the cytosol it's consistency. Organelles directly connect to Cytosol. pg 72.
With your knowledge of how a muscle cell contracts please describe three mechanisms (problems) that could inhibit or disrupt the process of muscle contraction. Think about the process and the steps involved in muscle contraction.
The three mechanism are Concentric Contractions, Eccentric Contractions, Isometric Contraction. Muscle fiber generates tension through the action of actin and myosin cross-bridge cycling. While under tension, the muscle may lengthen, shorten or remain the same. Although the term contraction implies shortening, when referring to the muscular system, it means muscle fibers generating tension with the help of motor neurons.
Many sarcomeres work serially and in parallel to achieve the full contraction ability of the muscle. The sarcomere includes Actin and Myosin. Actin and Myosin are protein based filaments from opposite sides of the sarcomere. Once the muscle is at rest, both the Actin and myosin filaments overlap. When the muscle contracts, the filaments from the opposing sides slide so the pulling both walls of the sarcomere. When the muscle is fully contacted, the filaments overlap each other the most. The sliding motion is activated by calcium that floods the sarcomeres (at the end of a process that is triggered by a command from a motor nerve). The calcium reveals sites on the Actin filaments at which molecular 'whips' extending from the Myosin filaments, can throw themselves, attach, pull, and leave, using the muscle's energy reserves in the process. Each molecular whip works at its own time (much like cylinders in an internal combustion engine), so that in any given time, contact between the filaments is being made by some of the whips.
What is the difference between osteoarthritis and osteoporosis?
Osteoarthritis is a noninflammatory condition that occurs in obese people or people who have trauma joints. They are both over the age of 65. It has lost of cartilage and adjacent bone overgrowth. Osteoporosis is a metabolic condition with loss of trabecular bone. Osteoporosis normally happens in women over 65, because she had steroids, smoking, caffeine, thyroid replacement. The hip and vertebral fracture are at risk for women. (Krant, J, Healthcentral, 2006)

Metal Gear Solid HD Collection review

 It all started in the year 1998: a new world opened up for many gamers, because Metal Gear Solid came to the PlayStation. About ten years before the first volume of the series on the MSX2 and that game was an immediate success. Over the years the series has become one of Sony's best first-party franchises and in 2012 we again take a look back in time. Konami brings Metal Gear Solid: HD Collection, and in this review you can read what we think of it.


We now know that HD collections are very popular, almost every car gets nowadays. For years whining remakes of Metal Gear fans to their games favoiete and after two years of the lips tightly held to have arrived about six months ago, Konami finally with the joyful announcement of Metal Gear Solid HD Collection. This HD collection contains no less than five titles. These are: MSX2 titles Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2, the top PlayStation 2 Metal Gear Solid 2 and Metal Gear Solid 3 and the PSP gem Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker.

Only the last three are in a new sleek look. Metal Gear 1 and 2 are just the games as we saw 20 years ago and actually meant it as an extra. Of course, the stories are exactly the same as the original version, so we do not go deep into this review. We did some good improvements found in the games. Let's start with Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty under the microscope.


"The Hudson River, two years ago." The phrase we hear when we start the game for us Metal Gear fans have reason enough to put a big smile. An epic adventure is repeated for the umpteenth time, but now entirely in HD and widescreen. The first Metal Gear adventure on the PlayStation 2 and appeared for the first time where we could play Raiden. Many fans did not like to play with these wannabe ninja, so popular was the game not real. However, the story of the game is very cool, allowing the game still well appreciated by the buyers.

Many innovations we could not find in this game, at least no innovations that really something to do. The game looks really great in HD though, and in that sense, the game really enjoyable to play. We see the new format just a little more on the sides of the screen and aim is a tad easier. Konami has also stopped the VR Missions there, what the playing quite what thickens. If you finish the main story is very nice to get some play and especially the humor inside. Do not get us wrong, it is an epic game and we want to just keep playing every year. The sequel, Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, does however provide some great improvements.


We go 40 years back in time and find ourselves high above the clouds. The colonel tells us what to do and here we go. We jump off the plane with a Halo jump and our mission begins. While the colonel gives us the latest information and John codenamed "Snake", it can really start our mission. How this proceeds further, we know probably does. Also this game has gotten a new format which allows us to see, but that is not the only special thing about the game. Snake Eater contains in addition to the standard version of the game, the Subsistance version. This is a simple press of the R3 button to switch.

This way of playing gives you like in MGS4 completely the possibility to control the camera itself. This ensures that the game is not only easier, but also a lot cooler to play. We see a lot more of the environment in this way. Because the original Subsistence limited edition was issued, it will for many people the first chance to Metal Gear Solid 3 in this way to play. Also it felt much better to aim for here. The game is of course entirely in HD, so we could better see where exactly we go our narcotic pellet shots. Graphically the game is really more beautiful and the weather was a wonderful experience to play.


Now that we have dealt with PlayStation 2 titles, We still need a title and that is the PlayStation Portable game that 2 years ago. We are clearly talking about Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker, perhaps the game where you have this collection for the house to fetch. Some fans label this game called Metal Gear Solid 5 because of the wonderful story. Of course, not everyone is nice to play games on the PSP, so this is your chance for the title on the big screen experience. The game plays surprisingly well off with the PlayStation 3 controller and graphically the game looks really good on the PlayStation 3.

It is still an art to a PSP title to porting to the PlayStation 3, something that until now only been done three times: with the 2nd God of War Collection, this time with Peace Walker. it continues to surprise us again and again how these games so naturlijk to feel on the PlayStation 3, since the controls quite reasonably many differences. And to say nothing about the graphic quality. From a small mini-window to a 102cm television is quite a big difference and it looks amazingly good. It's not amazingly beautiful course, but it is certainly worthy of PS3. This was also the first Metal Gear that you could play with 3 friends, a feature included in the PS3 version is.


You read it all: we are very positive about these HD Collection. The games are of course great to play, but the HD graphics really make some difference. Also we could finally get started with the Subsistance version of Snake Eater, which the player experience the game still made a lot fatter. The two MSX2 titles are also a nice extra. For a price tag of € 40, - is it worth to this issue in our homes, even if you've played all the games. Is that not the case, then this is your chance.

Pros

- Gameplay.
- Graphic beautiful.
- Metal Gear 1 and 2.

Cons

Minor flaws.

Graphics 8.5/10
sound 8.0/10
Gameplay 9.7/10

Pathophysogy week 2b

Not Me!

All cells have a outer plasma membrane that separate the cell's contents from the extracellular fluid. It provides a physical barrier that separates the inside of the cell from its surrounding environment. It regulates with the environment such as nutrients, waste, and release of secretions. It contains a variety of receptors that helps the cell recognize specific molecules. It provides the cell a stable structure. Cytoplasm consists of material inside the cell from the plasma membrane to the nucleus. Cytoplasm contains all the ingredients for cellular metabolism such as proteins, glucose, electrolytes, and many more depending on the cell's function. The nucleus contains the DNA and enzymes essential for controlling cellular activities. Differentiation is a specialized process that occurs as an embryo. Each cell has all its genetic information intact; however, as the embryo grows, the body dictates what cells need to be produced such as neurons, muscle cells; every cell has their own specialized function and are organized in collections called tissues. Every cell has its own cell cycle and production (mitosis) and the DNA has control over growth and production. If the DNA is altered in the parent cell, the daughter cells contain the same altered cells. All cells need an adequate blood supply, oxygen and nutrition in order to prosper. Hormones stimulates cell growth and reproduction or it may be inhibited by nearby cells. Altered DNA can either mutate in other structures and functions, or cause the cell to die. (Gould, B. E.., pg 96-97, 2011)
The difference between a cancer cell and a normal cell is its growth patterns. Unlike a normal cell, when its time is up, it dies. Cancer cells continue to grow and prosper into mutated cells. Cancer cells can also invade other cells which normal cells cannot. Some cancer cells become neoplasm (tumor). Benign tumors consist of differentiated cells, mitosis is fairly normal, growth is slow, can expand in a mass, most times it is encapsulated and it usually remains localized. Malignant tumors vary in size and are undifferentiated, has an increased mitosis and atypical, has a rapid growth, capable of infiltrating tissues, has no capsule, capable of metastasizing, and become life threating. (Gould, B. E.. , pg 97- 98, 2011)(BreastCancerOverview, pdf, 2011)
Mary is a 35 y.o. Female, 5 foot 3 inches tall, 110 pounds, who has been on oral birth control pills for 5 years, She does regular breast self exams. Her aunt on her mother's side is the only other family member known to have breast cancer. Mary found a lump in her right breast while doing a self exam. She immediately made an appointment with her physician. Other the next few days, she had a physical examination and a mammogram. The mammogram showed a growth and a biopsy was recommended. The biopsy showed cancer and surgery was scheduled.
In Mary's situation, two obvious risk factors were noted, in family history on her mother's side, her aunt had breast cancer. Secondly, Mary was on birth control pills for 5 years and according to the cancer society, 3+ more years on birth control pills can increases the cancer risk for those women; however, if a women stopped taking birth control pills and it has been over 10 years since taking the birth cintrol pills, the risk goes down. Other statistics that were not enclosed in the story are the following: Women who have early menstrual periods before age 12 and went through menopause after 55 have a slight increase of breast cancer due to longer exposure to hormones estrogen and progesterone. The same could be said for women who do not breast feed vs. breast feed their children, there is a decrease risk due to decrease hormonal effects from cessation of the menstrual cycle while breast feeding . Lack of exercise can increase the risk of breast cancer because exercise lowers the hormonal levels, alters metabolism and boosts the immune system. Lastly, woman with dense breast tissue contains more gland tissue and less fatty tissue causing potential problems in mammogram interpretations . (Cancer.org, 2012)



During surgery, a few surrounding lymph nodes were sent to the lab and since some showed cancer cells, a mastectomy was done. Per Mary's wishes, a mastectomy was done on the healthy left breast. After surgery, the breast tissues of both breasts was examined. The lab test found the following: on her right breast, invasive ductal carcinoma; stage 2; Estrogen receptor positive. On her left breast; ductal carcinoma in situ; also ER positive.
Mary's left breast did not show any lumps in her mammogram or on her physical, she still requested if a mastectomy was done on a right, that it would be also be done on her left. Like Mary, other women also choose to have a bilateral (both) mastectomy, especially if one breast contains cancer and the other is healthy in order to decrease their risk for future cancer in the unaffected side. (Cancer.org, 2012)
Per cancer society, the term 'in situ' is used in “early stages of cancer, when it is still confined to the layer of cells where it began”. This preinvasive stage cancer may be present for months or years.
In Mary's case, she elected to have both (bilateral) mastectomy for preventive care. Even with women who option for the bilateral mastectomy, some breast tissue still remains and the risk is greatly decreased; however, cancer can regenerate in the breast tissue that remains. Mary had a biopsy prior to her surgery, I am sure the method of treatment was discussed thoroughly between her and her doctor prior to surgery due to the results of the biopsy. From the biopsy lab test, breast cancer grade are given from one to three. Lower number means slowing growing cancer, and higher number means faster growing cancer. This is also used as a prognosis. Staging of cancer indicates how wide spread the cancer is by the time it is found. It portrays if the cancer is invasive or non-invasive, it also indicates the size of the tumor and if lymph nodes are involved and whether it has metastasize. (Gould, B. E.., pg 99, 2011) (Cancer.org, 2012) (Medicineworld.net, 2012)
Post-op lab results showed that Mary had stage II, invasive ductal (cells lining the milk ducts ) carcinoma with estrogen receptor (ER) positive. This type of cancer had spread out side the duct into the surrounding tissue with no lobe invasion. In order to grow, this type of cancer depends on the hormone estrogen. The lab result on her left breast showed ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) with positive ER. This type of cancer is a noninvasive cancer, but if not removed, it could develop into an invasive cancer. It also means that this cancer was only found in the breast ducts and has not spread past the layer of tissue where they began. This type of cancer also relies on the hormone estrogen in order to grow. According to Mary's post-op lab results her left breast cancer would be a stage 0. (Cancer.org, 2012) (Medicineworld.net, 2012)
For Mary, treatment was tailored to her individual cancer. Bilateral mastectomy was performed to removed the cancer that is visible. The next step taken was to lower the risk of recurrence and get rid of any remaining unseen cancer cells that have been left behind (adjuvant therapy). Radiation and hormonal therapy where chosen for her treatment. Radiation therapy is the use of high energy x-rays to kill cancer cells. A radiation regimen consist of a specific number of treatment over a set period of time. Mary was also prescribed tamoxifen for her hormonal therapy. Her type of cancer fuels its growth by the estrogen hormone. Tamoxifen is a drug that blocks estrogen from binding to the cancer cell. It is effective in lowering the risk of recurrence to the breast that had cancer and risk of future recurrence. Tamoxifen can be classified as an antiestrogen or selective estrogen receptor modulators. (Gould, B. E.., pp. 99, 107-110, 11, 2011) (nih.gov, 2012) (medcinenet, 2012)


References

Gould, B. E.. (2011) Chapter 5
(pp. 101-102), Path physiology for the Health Professions, 4th Edition. Saunders Learning, printed in United States.
Gould, B. E.. (2011) Chapter 5
(pp. 96-97), Path physiology for the Health Professions, 4th Edition. Saunders Learning, printed in United States.
Gould, B. E.. (2011) Chapter 5
(pp. 99), Path physiology for the Health Professions, 4th Edition. Saunders Learning, printed in United States.
Gould, B. E.. (2011) Chapter 5
(pp. 107-108), Path physiology for the Health Professions, 4th Edition. Saunders Learning, printed in United States.

Gould, B. E.. (2011) Chapter 5
(pp. 111), Path physiology for the Health Professions, 4th Edition. Saunders Learning, printed in United States.

Anonymous. (2011). Breast Cancer Risk Factors
Retrieved January 15, 2011, from Cancer.org website
http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedGuide/breast-cancer-risk-factors
Anonymous. (2011). Tamoxifen
Retrieved January 15, 2011, from NIH website
http://nlm.nih.gov/medicineplus/druginfo/meds/a682414
Anonymous. (2011). Tamoxifen
Retrieved January 15, 2012, from Medcinenet.com website
Http://medcinenet.com/tamoxifen/article.htm
Anonymous. (2011). Breast cancer treatment by stage
Retrieved January 15, 2012, from Medcineworld.org website
medicineworld.org/cancer/breast/treatment/rxbystage.html

King of Fighters XIII review

 Whoever thought that the King of Fighters franchise would cease to Part XII, was rightly afraid of the future. The game suffered from several flaws, both on and offline. You can not make in a year when the competition sucesevolle games like Street Fighter IV and Tekken 6 came up. Of course, this same game a lot of disappointed fans, and this stimulated SNK Playmore to try again. Does it succeed in the thirteenth section our interest, and therefore our confidence, to win back?


With releases such as Mortal Kombat and Marvel vs.. Capcom 3 is once again set the bar very high in the fighting genre, but whether you are familiar with the franchise or not, you will immediately see why this franchise ever had so great. Meanwhile, King of Fighters XIII knows himself to be distinguished from the other big names, but it also borrows a lot of different rivals. So you are fighting in groups of three, as in MVC 3, but it is not possible during a battle to switch between characters you selected. Plus, you not only official King of Fighters characters at your disposal, but you will also fighters from other SNK games again. This provides a lot of variation in terms of playable characters, which even in some modes you can combine your ultimate fighting team.

The playable modes are greatly expanded when comparing them to XII. For example, a story mode and added a Mission mode. The latter is mainly for newcomers to the franchise is very convenient because it allows you to master difficult combos to get. For this I am extremely grateful to them so, because with random button bashing will not do. During Story Mode, the merciless fighters and especially the boss fights you will float like mad you have no idea what you're doing. The boss fights in the game based on luck a little, because they have unique moves that you stun them, so they have a free hand a few seconds.


The story mode is also intended to inform the players about the story behind the King of Fighters tournament. Here are some of the main characters of the word, the brief and explain their views to the opponents. Here and there comes a cut-scene look at, but most consist of text reading and X button. A little trash talk before a fight should be, of course, but here I'd rather have a good voice actor for display. It is a pity that is thrown with terms and names that refer to the storyline that began with Ash Crimson in 2003. This put so much back story with him that eventually it very difficult to follow.

In addition, they thought they SNK, if they so much need to refine, but better to change everything at once. The total combat mechanics are in fact adjusted to provide you with a little exercise as the most deadly moves out of the cupboard. With a little practice I mean lots of practice, because even the simplest moves consist of combinations of 8 or more buttons. Guard, Clash and Critical counters are removed and this will EX Special Moves Hyper Drive mode and super-powered NEO MAX moves in the place This emphasis on "the bigger the attack the better 'and although you would not expect to see that is in tip-top order out.


Although the power of King of Fighters XIII certainly in the big, exuberant, almost too good to block attacks is, they are pretty tough in terms of implementation. The KOF veterans will one after another NEO MAX move shake out their sleeves, but there was no question of my case. These moves are only possible because if you attack meter is full. It decreases gradually filled after successful attacks you, but also those of your opponent. So sometimes you can win by yourself on the brink of death to save a NEO MAX move, if you have mastered it well. But frankly, even the tutorial for this already difficult and this makes the game way for go-getters, but definitely not up to speed. These will soon ignore the game.

Even if you look at the animations of the characters are with us, you will have jumps at the slightest notice that here a lot of work into it. Apart from the somewhat grainy display, there is tremendous attention to detail was great and all animations run smoothly. Moreover done secretly in the background much more than you notice when you're in the heat of battle is, but luckily it's not all just annoying. Furthermore, you also have the option to adjust your character. If you're tired of the old look, you'll just pass it? Win-win situation!


All in all, King of Fighters XIII is a great improvement on its predecessor, though it might be a greater challenge was to create a game just worse than King of Fighters XII. Goal, SNK is back at its old level. Each point of criticism is understood and where possible incorporated into the next installment. This is a much more extensive than the previous section, although the elaboration of some modes in some areas some may be strengthened - including the story in the story mode. If you do, do it well! Essentially it is a good start, but in future we prefer only successful submissions without half measures.

Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception

 

Uncharted: Drake's Fortune was the beginning of a new era for Naughty Dog. No more imaginary beings who were able to make unsafe platform genre, but a serious adult serious game. So something completely different. This outstanding franchise started well and Uncharted 2: Among Thieves was still a nice over all fronts by significantly better. Now two years later, the time has come that we have 3 Uncharted: Drake's Deception on the go.


Naughty Dog is a relatively small developer in two years time incredibly good games out of her sleeve manages to conjure. This was again proved with Uncharted 2: Among Thieves, which feature a completely new multiplayer mode was introduced. The bar that Uncharted 2: Among Thieves managed to record high was so bizarre and so the main question or 3 Uncharted: Drake's Deception it manages to surpass. After playing this sublime adventure you that now we can answer that: yes, unanimous yes! 3 Uncharted: Drake's Deception surpasses Uncharted 2: Among Thieves various fields.

In Uncharted: Drake's Fortune Naughty Dog did a very realistic water should be presented to the players. In Uncharted 2: Among Thieves was snow and in this third part is coming forward and one other element that is sand. You'll Nathan a lot in sandy areas around have are enjoying, looking for a lost city, also called the Atlantis of the desert. Before the time comes, however, make sure the whole world in search of clues.


Beginning of 3 Uncharted: Drake's Deception is totally different from the first two parts. You walk quietly back to Sully in London, heading for a deal. Nathan has been the ring of Sir Francis Drake hung around his neck, and this ring appears to be an important part in solving puzzles. Drake ends up in a typical English pub where the ring verpatsen ... but is this his real intention? You'll find yourself quickly enough. In any case, you end up one minute or two later, directly in combat.

Fighting has been substantial change and we will tell you more later, because there is much more to say about the various locations you'll inflict this time. So you're the first hour working in London and then on a totally different place to land, the relationship between Drake and Sully what is deepening. You learn how the two met and how it has evolved somewhat over the years. It was also here in the newsroom as a total surprise and a fresh twist for the franchise.


Well, when we were behind, began the real adventure and you will include France and the Middle Oosen chain. As befits a true treasure hunter do many different locations and that not only provides a nice variation, it also does every time your mouth fall open in astonishment. The different locations are all very much love put together and just as in the previous section, you will regularly pause to allow the beautiful surroundings. The Chateau level is an example of the visual highlights and we can not but mention the last part of the game and of course the desert through which you draw.

Naughty Dog do it again to get a visual here just a little better performance than in the previous section. Now you should not expect graphical progress, as the first to the second part of the case, but that one step further, it is clear. You see also back in the cut scenes. These look phenomenal and there is perhaps still the most progress. The sand, where you'll see a lot in this game has never been portrayed realistically.


Uncharted 2: Among Thieves has long been considered one of the best PlayStation 3 games and this stick neemtUncharted 3: Drake's Deception now. This is not only the graphic variety and unparalleled attention to detail, but also by the sublime animations of Nathan and the other characters who have a role in this game. A game like this is filled with various graphic debauchery - some animations are concerned - and it is rare that we have an extensive game practically no technical glitches encountered. Clearly an unprecedented achievement that Naughty Dog is able to put down here.

The moments where the animation is best justice to both while climbing and scrambling, as in the fighting. Now climb about the need no introduction, because it is perfected and feel great about. The combat system is the kick went, because the fighting is now supported by a sort of loose, short quick time events. This is very smooth and you can now use the environment here. You see a cabinet, then grab the enemy and ram you knock him out with his head on the edge of the box. Is there a pot nearby, then of course your hard smack on his head.


Now you throughout the game regularly end up in combat with various enemies. Mainly they are simply your guests with some bullets kills. Occasionally you get some stronger characters to those which require more tactics and that's further than that. In this respect there is little new under the sun, but what is new is that your big enemy this time is the charismatic Catherine Marlowe, who gets help from a guy in tight suits and this guy has a rather creepy look. This is so different compared to the previous two sections, where the great enemies actually some typical bad-guys were without meaningful input.

At its core, 3 Uncharted: Drake's Deception is more of the same. The gameplay has three main variations. That's fighting, climbing and puzzling. The mix of these three elements is again so well together that it fits perfectly into the story again and again and you will enjoy the variety that this game dishes out. The puzzles are totally different from that of the previous parts and know that you also will find the necessary entertainment. Naughty Dog has at least a couple of puzzles technical geniuses, because it is a great issue to resolve them.


We could go on and on about what all was not good to 3 Uncharted: Drake's Deception, but the short summary is simple: everything! The game has great gameplay, it plays so incredibly good that it almost impossible to further improve. The variety is perfect and visually it's sublime. Not just the environment but also some details concerning levels and moving to a completely new concept became after knocking out this adventure. Then we must also not forget the audio. The wonderful soundtrack is another great place and the voice acting is again top notch.

Naughty Dog with Uncharted delivers 3: Drake's Deception a true masterpiece, which we hereby appoint the best part of the franchise. The single player takes an hour or eight, but then start again, because it is an overwhelming experience that you will not soon forget. Rarely have so we really enjoyed a game and there's plenty to do besides the single player. Indeed, there are several multiplayer options that make the game a long time and will keep alive among these features is a cooperative mode, which has its own story.


In total you can play co-op in two ways. Thus, the co-op mode with well-known waves of enemies present, where you have to survive for so long and you can also play through a story co-op. This story is paper thin, not very special. Well it's nice to characters and locations from previous titles coming to pass. It therefore are completely separate from the single player, because chronologically correct the story of the co-op for a yard. Eddy Raja from the first part is indeed dead and Lazarovic too. Nevertheless, we enjoyed the five co-passed levels.

In this mode, you especially to co-firing, and every now and then you have some puzzles. Teamwork is of great importance. By enemies to shoot and you earn money that you can use to back yourself with new boosters, outfits and more. The five missions in co-op play through will cost you about three hours, which is a nice addition to the eight-hour single player. For a really large number of playing hours of course you must go to the online multiplayer.


This has the requisite number of (new) modes, which you fully compete with each other can go. If you are the multiplayer of Uncharted 2: Among Thieves have played, you should have no fundamental change taking place in the gameplay. Except that some new modes to be detected and that the multiplayer is still deeper than before. We must also not forget of course new maps. Naughty Dog did with Uncharted 2: Among Thieves prove perfectly capable of creating a strong multiplayer to deliver in 3 Uncharted: Drake's Deception is on sound this way continued.

3 Uncharted: Drake's Deception is a must have! Naughty Dog surpasses himself with a bizarre good game. The variation in the locations that you do and the visual highlight in the form of sand and moving levels is unprecedented. The animations are scary good, the cutscenes even better. The story is interesting and as Marlowe's great enemy. Furthermore, the audio in several areas and shows the brilliant co-op a nice addition. The multiplayer is as expected very strong, and thus we conclude our review with the following: one of the best games ever made!

Pros:

- Story.
- Gameplay.
- Audio.
- Graphics.
- Multiplayer features.
- Best in the franchise.

Cons

- zero

GoldenEye 007: Reloaded reivew

 oldenEye 007 in the year 2011 is still considered one of the best shooters ever. The game is now 14 years old and may be labeled as a Nintendo 64 classic. Last year Activision released the game again for the Nintendo Wii and now the PlayStation 3's turn. The game is just in the shops and appears between 3 and Battlefield Modern Warfare 3. A bold step in advance all or a hopeless mission?


The game is full of different options, but let's start with the single player. It tackles the single most important moments in the film and lets you replay it. This takes you from Russia to Barcelona, ​​Dubai and more. Following in the tradition of James Bond you with other items to complete your mission and where it goes wrong you will be with your pistol or machine gun have to fight the enemy. What makes this game interesting is the ability to both brute force to complete your order and with stealth.

You get the opportunities presented themselves with stealth and in some cases it may seem sensible at any time on a real shoot-out ahead. This will never be really difficult, because the game knows about the most miserable of all AI games released this year. To get the stealth options remain: are opportunities everywhere to get yourself moving unseen and if you unexpectedly encounter an enemy, then you can deal with both your hands or using your pistol with silencer.


It is true that once you are caught, you should disable all enemies. The enemies are invoked to strengthen. This is not difficult, as we said. This is partly because the game is incredibly linear. The explanation is that this is a remake of a shooter of 14 years old, but it makes the game is not difficult. You always know exactly where to go and the enemies are most often harass you in advance. It also ensures that you are in a relatively short time the whole game.

We started our adventure on the "normal" difficulty setting, but this is so incredibly simple that we highly recommend a higher level to start. We were running in no time going through each level and shot everything in our path into the next without really much opposition. If you do unfortunately die once, then you have another point of criticism against it. These are the loading times. It is quite artfully to a game that a small 4 gigabytes of hard drive asks, is visually moderate looks and gameplay which dated it to provide load times longer than those in Modern Warfare 3 or Battlefield 3 for one thing call.


Indeed, the gameplay is a bit outdated, because you never really special things to do and where it really counts is action. This in itself is fine, but it is pretty stupid if you just shoot around corners sees the bullet hole in the texture of the corner where you are sitting, which is apparently not good enough cut. Moreover, the bodies disappear in seconds and the animations are bad Fri. The game is clearly a port of the Nintendo Wii version and is in every way inferior to today's shooters.

Sin, absolute sin. This does not mean that the game is not fun. Despite the many shortcomings we have a good time with the single player. It is mainly a brain-less shooter, which to some extent remains faithful to the original. Besides a single player modes, we find two more back. Brand new is the MI6 Ops. This is a mode where your number of challenges on offer here and you earn stars. If you have enough stars, you unlock new challenges. These challenges range from as soon as possible, eliminating all the enemies to protect a computer.


Itself was a bit like the Spec-Ops mode of the last two parts Modern Warfare, because the idea is almost identical. A nice addition to the game for sure, but it feels nothing special. This is again due to the previously appointed shortcomings, which we also found it in single player. Maybe the multiplayer or a strong point of the game? The multiplayer GoldenEye was once the source of inspiration for other shooters, but in the year 2011, the concept is reversed. The multiplayer of that time can not maintain all the major players of elaborate multi-now, so the inspiration is there removed.

This results in a multiplayer modes and maps terms that nice varied. It's also fun to play this with friends, both offline and online, but it is good to describe here a word in place and that is traditional. Nowhere is the very special, but it is entertaining and that goes especially for split-screen option. The online multiplayer has to do with lying, miserable matchmaking and more awkward bumps, giving you easy access to a rude awakening coming. Perhaps this will be resolved soon through a patch, but really a good start is not.


GoldenEye 007: Reloaded is a game in each segment is fun to play. That comes first. You'll have fun with single player, the MI6 Ops and the multiplayer. Yet it is sin that is not what the game has received increased attention. Thus the visual only moderately, the AI ​​is oerstom, the load times are huge and the online multiplayer has to do with technical irritations. As an extra feature you can play games with the PlayStation Move and it works fine also. Nevertheless, we conclude that the game never throws high eyes and the magic surrounding the GoldenEye game hung with snow in this part as the sun disappears.

Pros

- Amusing.
- Split-screen multiplayer.
- PlayStation Move support.
- MI6 Ops is a nice addition.

Cons

- Visually very moderate.
- Pretty simple.
- Oerdomme Ai.
- Poor animations.
- Feels like a moderate port.
- Long load times.

Pathophysiology week 3b

Caution: Fragile!

When we are young and sprite, we believe we are invincible. When we become older, we are programmed to think young regardless of the physical wear and tear changes that occur, it just takes a little longer (life cycle). In the following scenario, Bill is enjoying his retiring life style in ways he enjoys; however back pain may involve some changes.
Bill is a 70 y.o. male who held a desk job until his retirement 5 years ago. Since then, he has spent most of his time working on his stamp collection. Bill has never been very active due to his asthma. He also is a picky eater and does not like dairy products. Bill and his wife do take a daily walk around the neighborhood. One day while on their walk, Bill begins to complain of back pain. The next day, the pain is worse and Bill's wife insists that he see the doctor.
Bill suffers from asthma. Asthma is an chronic allergic lung disorder that inflames, creates swelling and narrows the airways. Because the airways are already inflamed, certain factors promote episodes of breathing difficulties called asthmatic attacks. The factors that can trigger an asthmatic attack include allergens, environmental agents, exercise, or infection. When asthmatic attack occurs narrowing of the airway occurs the same way regardless of the stimuli factor as the following: The inflamed mucosa causes edema (swelling), broncho constriction of the smooth muscle occurs, and increase thick stick mucus. According to the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute inhaled corticosteroids are the preferred medicines for long-term control for asthma. It helps reduced inflammation and helps prevents symptoms caused by asthma. Corticosteroid pills and liquids are only used short term in order to control severe cases of asthma. Prolong use of pill/liquid corticosteroid can raise the risk of cataracts and osteoporosis. (nih, 2012)
The doctor does an x-ray which shows a compression fracture in Bill's L1 vertebrae. As a follow-up, the doctor also orders a Bone Mineral Density Test. This test comes back with a T score of -2.8. The doctor prescribes a pain reliever for Bill's back pain and a course of treatment for the diagnosed disease.
Our skeletal system has many primary functions such as body's structural support, storage for calcium, contributes to blood cell production, protection of the soft tissues in the body, and gives our body leverage in order to assist our muscles in movement. When we are younger, our bones are in a frequent manufacturing mode throughout the year building bone mass ( bone density) by absorbing calcium and removing protein and mineral components. After 30s the body starts to reabsorb calcium faster than the bones can rebuild leading to a net loss in bone mass as we age. This net loss of bone mass (bone density) cause the bones to become more fragile and a candidate for fractures especially in the spine, hip and wrist.
Osteoporosis occurs when there is a marked loss of bone density and a increase in bone porosity. This condition is frequently seen the aging. There is usually no symptoms until the damage has already occurred such as back pain, loss of height and fractures of vertebrae, hips, wrist and other bones. Unlike hip fractures, fractures in the spine do not need an incident like a fall to occur. The spine may have become so weakened that it just starts to compress. There is many risk factors that can make a person prone to osteoporosis. Some of these factors are the following: You are an older person; You are a woman; Decrease estrogen levels especially after menopause; For men, low testosterone levels; Have a sedentary life style; Decreased intake of vitamin D, C, and calcium; Heredity; and Take corticosteroid drugs. (NIH.gov)
Men have more bone mass than women; whereas men in their 50s are loosing bone mass at a very slow rate compared to women after menopause. By the time men reach their mid sixties – 70, men and women lose bone density at the same rate. This is a possible reason why men are not diagnose with osteoporosis until a fracture actually happens because women are having bone density tests earlier in life. (about, 2012)

Diagnosis of osteoporosis can be done by simply having a bone mineral density test called DXA or DEXA ( Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) that measures bone loss. DXA is the standard for measuring bone mineral density. A Lateral Vertebral Assessment (LVA) is a low -dose x-ray examination of the spine to screen for vertebral fractures is also performed on the DXA, especially if a person has lost in height, or have an unexplained back pain, or if the DXA scan gives a borderline reading. Radiation from the DXA is lower than a chest x-ray. The DXA works by sending out a low-dose x-rays with two distinct energy peaks through the bones being examine. One peak is absorbed by soft tissue and other is absorbed by bone. The bone density measurement results is by subtracting the soft tissue amount from the total. The test results are in two forms. The 'T' score is the amount of a person's bone compared to a young adult of the same gender, which are the following: A score above
[ -1 ] is considered normal. A score between [ -1 ] and [ -2.5 ] is classified as low bone mass (osteopenia). A score below [ -2.5 ] is defined as osteoporosis. T score estimates your risk of developing fractures. A 'Z' score reflects the amount of bone a person's has compared others in the same age group. Score is usually high or low, indicating a need for further testing. Bills T score was
[-2.8]. Bill T score is classified as osteoporosis accordingly to the DXA test results. (radiologyinfo, 2012)
Bills history, supports his risks for osteoporosis. His use of asthma medications which could be either glucocorticoids or corticosteroid puts him at risk for bone loss. The gluccorticoid is an anti-infla mmatory drug decreases calcium absorption from food, decreases bone formation, and increases calcium excretion in the kidneys. The corticosteroid drug can interfere with sex hormone production, promote muscle and bone loss. Most of Bills activity is mostly sedentary due to his asthma, although he does take daily walks which is a plus. He also does not eat well and does not take in dairy products. Lastly his age makes him an obvious risk. His increasing back pain after a walk was the only symptom that made him go to a physician. The x-ray report showing a compressed (collapse) fracture the L1of the vertebrae which probably cause his pain. The vertebrae (lumbar region) is a region that bears most of the body weight. The Bone Mineral Density Test (DXA) T results was scored [-2.8]. Both x-ray and DXA medical findings support Bill's diagnosis.
Bill's treatment management will possibly require a increase calcium and vitamin D diet intake, with the emphasis in a calcium supplement of 1200-1500 mg daily and a vitamin D of 600 -800 units a day. Continue to encourage a more active life style along with his daily weight bearing exercise to prevent bone loss, which he already does by walking. Bill's physician will probably manage both asthma and osteoporosis by balancing medication that will benefit Bill with least side effects. For his asthma, the physician may put Bill on a glucocorticoid ( hydrocortisone or prednisone) inhaler instead of oral, at a lower dose and encourage shorter time of use. For osteoporosis, treatment would consist of anti-resorptive agents which inhibit bone reabsorption. Bisphosphonates is a class of drugs that inhibits breaking down of bone, decreasing the risk for hip, wrist, and spinal fracture. One example of this drug would be Fosamax ( bisphosphonate anti-resorptive medication) which has shown to increase bone density in men. Another example, Actonel (bisphosphonate anti-resorptive ) is a better medication for those people who have osteoporosis caused by cortisone related medication, which may be indicated in Bill's case. This medication is more potent in resorption of bone than Fosamax and is less irritating to the esophagus.




References
Anonymous. (2012). How Is Asthma Treated and Controlled?
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from Nhlbi.nih.gov website
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/asthma/treatment.html
Anonymous. (2012). What is Asthma?
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from Nhlbi.nih.gov website
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/asthma/
Anonymous. (2011, January). What People With Asthma Need to Know About Osteoporosis
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from Nhlbi.nih.gov website
http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Bone/Osteoporosis/Conditions_Behaviors/asthma.asp
Anonymous. (2012). Bone Density Scan
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from Radiologyinfo website
http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info.cfm?pg=dexa
Bihari, M. MD. (2008, November 25). Osteoporos for men
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from About website
http://drugs.about.com/od/osteoporosismedications/a/osteoporos_men.htm
Anonymous. (2012). Osteoporosis medications
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from ACAAI website
http://www.acaai.org/allergist/asthma/conditions/osteoporosis-and-asthma/Pages/osteoporosis-medications.aspx


Gould, B. E.. (2011) Chapter 10
(pp. 180), Path physiology for the Health Professions, 4th Edition. Saunders Learning, printed in United States.

Pathophysiology week 3

I'm Just Tired
You have to love the our immune system. “ You must remember this. A kiss is not just a kiss..., ” is a partial lyrics in a song sung in the classic movie “Casablanca”. The above lyrics is a clue how infectious mononucleosis can be spread. Unknown to any one person, the saliva in the mouth may harbor the Epstein-Barr ( EBV) virus. In part, this may be what happened in the following scenario.
Karen is a 17 y.o. Female basketball player who has been suffering from fatigue. It is beginning to interfere with her playing, and her team is expected to go to the playoffs this year. She also has a sore throat. Karen believes she is just not getting enough sleep due to games and being out with her boyfriend. However, her mother insists she visit the doctor.
Infectious mononucleosis is a common illness caused by Epstein-Barr virus(EBV). EBV is categorize in the herpes virus group. The primary transmission source of EBV is a person-to-person contact with saliva; however in a few cases transmission may occur through air ( droplet in sneezing or coughing) or blood. The EBV exposure eventually leads to the infection of the B lymphocytes in the epithelial cells of the nasopharynx and oropharynx In the United States, 95 % of adults between the ages of 30-45 years of age have already been exposed to the EBV and have antibodies (immunity) that can target the virus. Thus, sometime during their life span, these people have been infected with EBV. Thanks to the immune system, the antibodies that targets the EBV cells, produces a life long immunity. However, the EBV can become dormant and remain in a few epithelial cells in the throat and blood. In some healthy people, this stealth-like nature of the EBV reactivates in the person's saliva, causes no symptoms and , the person then becomes a carrier, shedding the EBV without his/hers knowledge of its existence. According to the Center of Disease and Control (CDC), this may be one reason why EBV is world wide and difficult to prevent. These same people can secrete the EBV through out their life time due to the periods of reactivation. Most children who have been exposed to EBV do not have any symptoms or are treated for having other mild childhood illnesses. In teenagers and young adults, symptomatic conditions and signs of mononucleosis, usually occurs in 35-50% of the cases per National Center of Infectious Disease. Incubation period (time from the initial infection to the appearance of symptoms) for mononucleosis is approximately 4 -8 weeks. Contagious period is usually
during the infection period and weeks after ward. (pg 164-165)( cdc.gov, 2011)(aafp, 2004)
The physician finds Karen has swollen lymph nodes; an enlarged spleen; and tonsillitis. The lab test come back with the following findings: CBC: Increased WBC; normal RBC. Liver Function Test: Increase liver enzymes. Heterophil antibody test : positive.
Clinical symptoms and signs of mononucleosis involve sore throat (80-90%), fever, headache, malaise (lack of energy), fatigue, temporary rash on trunk, enlarged (swollen) lymph nodes/glands (lymphadenopathy), enlarged spleen (splenomegly) and the age factor. Diagnostic measures are also taken to confirm or rule out other illnesses/causes. Lab test that narrow in on certain symptoms or signs such as culture for sore throat or fever, blood chemistry test to reveal infection or abnormal liver functions, and a heterophil antibody test (Monospot test), which is sensitive to specific antibodies made in the immune system. An elevated white count( increase in lymphacytes and monocytes ), an increase or presence of atypical T-lymphacytes, and a positive heterophil test confirms the diagnosis. ( cdc.gov, 2012)( Gould, B. E, pg 165, 2011)(aafp, 2004)(labtestonline, 2012)
Karen's physician likely suspected Karen's diagnosis as mononucleosis due to Karen's symptoms, signs and physical exam. Karen was in the right age group, suffered fatigue, malaise, and had a sore throat. Her exposure to saliva could have come from any one she was close to. Number one, it could have come from her boy friend. Number two, one or more of her family members or friends, where she may shared a bite of cake or another food item where the utensil or food may have saliva on it. It could be any number of situations where saliva maybe exchanged.
Karen's physical exam noted swollen lymph nodes, an enlarge spleen, and tonsillitis. Karen's lab results showed an increase in WBCs and normal RBCs, an increase liver enzymes obtained from the liver function test, and a positive Heterophil Antibody Test. The increase liver enzymes only indicates that there is some liver inflammation, with mono the liver enzymes usually return to normal without treatment. The lab results along with the Heterophil Antibody Test confirmed Karen's diagnosis. Karen had to have mono for a period of time in order to obtain an acceptable amount antibodies made by the immune system for the Heterophil Antibody Test to become positive, approximately 1-4 weeks. ( immunity cycle).
Karen's doctors prescribes a treatment regimen and tells her she may not play basketball for at least one month and she needs an exam before she resumes playing. Karen is disappointed she cannot play basketball, but is happy that the doctor says she will never get this disease again.
Since mononucleosis is viral, Karen's physician more than likely prescribed comfort and supportive measures that would help in relieving her symptoms, such as plenty of rest, or an over-the-counter analgesic like tylenol or motrin for temporary relief from discomfort (no aspirin in her age group due to Reyes syndrome), and fluid hydration. It also might be possible that Karen's tonsillitis is a bacterial infection, secondary affect of mono. An antibacterial drug would be prescribed ( ampicillin and amoxicillin should be avoided due body rash potential in people with mono, thus mistaken as an allergy) . If not, gargling with salt water is one home-made treatment that could be used to soothe the soreness in her throat along with others temporary remedies , such sucking on a Popsicle or warm drinks etc. (medicinenet, 2010)
The spleen is fragile and important part of the immune system. It filters blood, stores iron from recycle RBCs, removes abnormal blood cells, and initiates response of B cells and T cells in the blood. Splenomegaly (enlarged spleen) caused by mono, makes it vulnerable to injury. Karen's physician requested no basketball for a month most likely due to the spleen's vulnerability to injury. A follow up clinic visit was needed in order to evaluate the spleen before Karen resumes basketball. (webmd,
As mentioned earlier, Karen does not have to worry about getting the disease again; she has life time immunity. At the present, she only needs to concern herself in getting better with lots of hugs with no kisses from her family, friends, and boyfriend.

References
Anonymous. (2012). Epstein-Barr Virus and Infectious Mononucleosis
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from CDC.gov website
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/ebv.htm
Ebell, M.H.. (2004, October, 1). Epstein-Barr Virus Infectious Mononucleosis
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from CDC.gov website
http://www.aafp.org/afp/2004/1001/p1279.html
Anonymous. (2012). Epstein-Barr Virus Antibodies
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from CDC.gov website
http://labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/ebv/tab/test
Anonymous. (2010, April 19). Spleen
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from webmd.com website
http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/picture-of-the-spleen
Stöppler, M.C. (2012). Infectious Mononucleosis
Retrieved January 20, 2012, from medicinenet website
http://www.medicinenet.com/infectious_mononucleosis/page3.htm#6whatis

Gould, B. E.. (2011) Chapter 10
(pp. 165), Path physiology for the Health Professions, 4th Edition. Saunders Learning, printed in United States.

Structure and Function of the Human Body week 7

1. Compare and contrast non-specific and specific immunity. What is the difference between innate immunity, acquired immunity, active immunity, and passive immunity?

The immunity system works two ways. Non-specifically and specifically. The main difference between non-specific immunity and specific immunity have to do with the following: the response time, non-antigen specific vs. antigen specific and no memory vs. memory after exposure from the pathogen, foreign matter or abnormal cell.
In non-specific immunity (present at birth ) defense barriers are always present, capable of targeting non-specific antigens, has no immunological memory (immediate action only), and responds more immediate to invading organisms. In other words, the main function of non-specific immunity is preventing microbes from entering into the body by targeting antigens before hand or isolating them if microbes does enter the body, as in an inflammatory response (temporary repair, slows the spread of pathogen, and helps with tissue regeneration). An intact skin is the first line of defense for non-specific immunity. The skin prevents invasion of microbes. Other body defense surfaces includes mechanical and tactile protection the hair provides on the scalp and other parts of the body, sweat and sebaceous glands found in the epidermal (that flushes and washes away microbes and chemical agents), and epithelium lining in the digestive, respiratory, and urinary tract where acidity, enzymes, and mucus are secreted. Microbes are caught in the mucous found in the nose and respiratory. The stomach's acidity produces an environment that can hinder microbe growth or can destroy the microbe. Mucous in the urinary track attract microbes and flushes them out of the body. (pg 480)

Also included in non-specific immunity is phagocytes, the first line of cellular defense. There are two classes of phagocytes, microphages and macrophages. These 'Pac-Man' cells circulate in the blood system and enter the peripheral tissue, looking for microbes and pathogens to surround, and destroy. They are usually the first to encounter infection. (pg 479-480)

In the immunological surveillance, our body's immune system is surveying for abnormal cells to attack and destroy. This involves lymphocyte,NK (natural killer)cells. The NK cells pick up antigens on abnormal cells membranes. (pg 480)

The interferons are small proteins released by activated lymphocytes, macrophages, and tissue cells that have been exposed to a virus. In essence, cellular exposure with interferons produces anti-viral proteins; thereby, prevents viral replication inside the cell and slows the spread of the virus.

The complement system (complements antibodies' action) attacks and breaks down. Complement activation attracts phagocytes, stimulates phagocytosis, destroys plasma membranes (breaks down cellular walls), and stimulates inflammation. (pg 480-481)

In the inflammation process, mast cells play an important role. Mast cells are found in connective tissue and their main duty is to release chemicals that activates the body's defenses after an injury or infection. Once the mast cell is activated, blood flow increases, phagocytes are activated, capillary permeability increases the inflammation response, clotting reaction walls off region, regional temperature is increased, and specific defenses are activated. (pg 480)

In specific immunity, there is a lag time between exposure to the antigen and maximum response (antibodies). T-cells and B cells are naturally programmed in the bone marrow and thymus to attack only specific (nonself) antigens and not normal (self)body antigens found on normal cells. T-cells provide defense against abnormal cells and pathogens inside living cells (cell mediated immunity). B-cells provide defense against antigens and pathogens in body fluid (antibody-mediated immunity). Exposure to the pathogen or foreign cell results in immunological memory.

There are also two types of specific immunity, innate and acquired. Innate immunity is the genetically determined at birth and has no prior exposure to the antigen involved. The acquired immunity occurs when prior exposure and antibody production exist. Active and passive immunity are subdivision of acquired immunity. Active immunity is produced when specific antibodies develop in response to specific antigens. Active immunity can either occur through natural ( environmental) means or induced ( administration of antigens) means. Passive immunity is produced by transfer of antibodies from another person. Passive immunity can also occur through natural means such as in maternal breast milk or transferred of maternal antibodies across the placenta. (pg 482-483)

2. Explain the pathway of lymph once it enters into the lymphatic vessels to being “dumped” back into the blood stream. What materials or items could be found in the lymph? What happens to the lymph when it goes through the lymph node?

Unlike our circulatory system, where the blood stream is pumped by the heart, the lymphatic system is only a one way system that flows upward from the extremities (feet and hands), through the body towards the neck. This is accomplished through the normal movement of the respiratory and skeletal muscles and the overlapping arrangement of the endothelial cells found in the lymphatic vessels that promotes forward movement and prevents backflow. (pg 473)

Since the lymphatic vessels run parallel to the venous system, the start of the lymphatic system begins with the lymphatic capillaries which begins as a blind pockets in the peripheral tissue. These capillaries are lined with simple squamous epithelium and lack a basement membrane. This permits permeability of fluids, solids, and waste to flow into the lymphatic capillaries. (pg 473)

Lymphatic capillaries eventually flows into larger lymphatic vessels that eventually leads toward the trunk of the body. Like the venous system, valves are needed in the larger lymphatic vessels to prevent back flow due to the pressure in the vessel is low. The larger lymphatic vessels empty into two large lymphatic ducts, thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct. The thoracic duct collects lymph from the lower abdomen, pelvis, lower limbs and from the left half of the head, neck, and chest. It finally empties into the venous system near the junction between the left jugular vein and the left subclavian vein. The right lymphatic duct covers a smaller area. The right lymphatic duct collects lymph from the upper right quadrant of the body, the right arm, and the right side of the head and neck. It empties into the right subclavian vein (which is blood) that eventually goes into the right atrium of the heart back into the circulatory. I can imagine anything that leaks out from the tissue into the interstitial fluid leaks into the lymphatic capillaries; therefore, the thin epithelium found in the lymphatic capillaries permits water, protein molecules and other molecules, virus, bacteria, fungi and other pathogens are carried in the lymph. (pg 473)

When the lymph is processed through the lymph node, a filtration process is taking place removing waste products, some excess fluids, and purifying lymph fluid before it reaches the venous system. Afferent lymphatic vessels carry unfiltered lymph fluid through the nose. When the lymph flows through the sinuses of the lymph node, 99% of antigens are removed by macrophages (white blood cells). As the antigens are spotted and removed, this stimulates the T-cells and B-cells to activate which initiates the immune response. After the purification of the lymph fluid, the fluid is returned to the venous circulatory system through the efferent lymphatic vessels.

3. Compare and contrast T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes specific immunity mechanisms. In specific immunity, why does exposure (1st exposure compared to 2nd and subsequent exposures) matter?

Cells recognize antigens when those antigens are bound to membrane receptors of other cells. The structure of these antigen-binding membrane receptors is generally determine. Membrane receptors are called major histocompatibility complier (MHC) proteins. There are tow classes of MHC. Class I MHC protein are found in the plasma membrane of all nucleated cells. Class II MHC proteins are found in the membranes of lymphocytes of antigen – presenting cells (APC)
Class I MCH is MCH bend of display small peplicales molecules (chain of amino acid that are activated either by recognition such as in organ donation or by contact as in viral or bacterial which results in destruction of the abnormal cell. Class II MCH activate 7 cells to attack foreign cells, including bacteria and foreign proteins such as microglia in the CNS and macrophages in the liver (keep their cells) After the ACC breakdown the foreign antigens / pathogens – fragments of the foreign antigens are imprinted on their cell surfaces bound to class II MHC protein. T Cells that come in contract are APC membrane become activated initiating an immune response activating of T cell only occurs when MHC protein contains the specific antigen the T cell is program to detect T cells divide and differentiate into cells specific function in the immune response. These types are cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, memory T cells and suppressor T Cells. (pg 486-488)

Cytotoxen T cells (killer t-cells) responsible for all medicated immunity they are activated by exposure to antigens bound to class I MHC proteins. They destroy their target by the following specific secretions: lymphotorein disrupt the cell metabolism, cytocrine tell the cell genes to die and perform which destructs the plasma membrane. T cells are activated by exposure to antigen bound to Class II MHC helper T Cells are activated by exposure to antigen bound to class II MHC proteins on antigen presenting cells through activation they divide to produce memory cells and more helper T cells. (pg 486-488)

Cytotoxin T cells and helper T cells developing into memory T cells these cell remain in reserve until the same antigen appears a second time around in which case they will become either cytotoxic T cells or helper T cells and enhance in speed and effectiveness of the immune response. Suppressor T cells have their major job which is to put the brakes on the response of other T cells and B cells by secreting cytolysis called suppression factors – suppression cells act after the initial immune system. (pg 486-488)

Initial response to antigen exposure is called primary response. Primary response takes approximately one-two weeks to develop peak antibody levels after exposure then recline. ICM modules are the first to appear in the blood stream followed by a slow rise in IGC. Secondly, in the primary response, antigens must activate specific B cells and B cells must then respond by differentiating into plasma cells. Memory B cells do not differentiate into plasma until cells are exposed to the same antigen a second time. After the 2nd exposure occurs, memory B cells respond quickly by dividing and differentiating into plasma cells that then secrete massive amount of antibodies. (pg 486-488)

During the second response, the body is ready with antibodies. The response is faster and stronger. The memory cells are already equipped to attack even with low levels of antigens. Immunization looks as a secondary response. because it stimulates the production of memory B cells under controlled condition. (pg 486-488)

B cells launch a chemical attack on antigens by going through a series of events that result in production of specific antibodies. Each B cells carries its own antibody molecule in its cell membrane. When a corresponding antigen appears in the interstitial luid gets well bound by B cells antibodies. The antigen enters the b cell by endocytosis and become displayed on class II MHC protein surface this is called sensitized activated help T cells encounting the antigen on the sensitizing B cell then release cytogens that trigger the activation of the B cell. The B cell then divides producing memory B cells and plasma cells that secrete antibodies.
Memory B cells like memory T cells remain on reserve to respond until second exposure of the same centigen at which time they respond by differenting into antibodies and secreting plasma cells. (pg 486-488)

Antigen antibody binding occurs between antigen binding sets on the antibody and antigenric determinant sites on the antigen. When an antibody molecule binds to its specific antigen an antigen antibody complex is formed. This is where they bind to certain positions of its exposed surface called antigenic determinate sites. (pg 486-488)

4. Immune responses are consistently occurring within our body and involve many complex steps. For the most part these mechanisms perform very well but there are 3 categories of complications and/or dysfunction that can occur within the immune system. List and describe each category and the cause of the dysfunction.

There are three classes of disorders that can result from a malfunctioning immune system. Autoimmune system is one class that targets normal (self) cells' antigens and tissues as foreign invaders. This causes the B-cells to produce specific antibodies to attack normal cells and tissues. These antibodies are called autoantibodies. Examples of autoimmune deficiency disorder is a situation that occurs in IDDM (insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus) where the auto-antibodies attack cells in the pancreatic islets. Another situation that can occur under autoimmune disorder is when antibodies start to associate normal protein amino acids sequencing with those of several viruses. Many viruses' proteins contain amino acids that closely resembles the amino acid sequence found in the nervous system protein. Complications caused by a viral infection or vaccination can result in a decease such as multiple sclerosis. Lastly, autoimmune disorder can be found in people who have an unusual genetic MHC (major histocompatibility complex) protein. People with this defect may sub-comb to such diseases as rheumatoid arthritis, grave's disease, psoriasis or pernicious anemia.

Immune deficiency disease is another class. In this case, there is an abnormal development of the immune system or the immune response is blocked. Children with SCIDC (severe combined immunodeficiency deceases) get to developed cell on immune response, total protected infected. Aids is another immunodeficiency decease caused by viral infection that targets helper T-cells which eventually causes an immune response to malfunctionencies.

Allergies is a third classes of the immune diffidences caused by antigens called allergens. In this case, the immune responds inappropriately excessively to the allergies. Immune hypersensitivity is a rapid form response to an antigen. The initial exposure does not trigger a response allergic reaction, but only lets the stage for a prone aggressive response second time around. The initial response only starts the process for IGE antibodies production and attach themselves to the cell membrane of the aphelia and mast cells. Later with the second exposure, these cells are activated and release histamine, heparin, several cytoganis, prostoglancilins, and other chemical into the surrounding tissues. The severity depends on the person's sensitively on areas envalve such as the body surface. - inflammation is restricted to that area, blood stream could be devastating in area prophylaxis is where the allergen affects the mast cells producing a severe reaction or even lethal reaction. The affects can produce cells-producing capillaries in the smooth muscle causing difficult breathing and of severe vasodilation causing circulatory collapse in the airway (Cana-phylactic shock)


5. Why can fevers be a good mechanism for the body? Why can they be a bad mechanism?
Fever is any temperature higher than 99°Fahrenheit. Fever is also your body's reaction to infection and illness. It helps the body to fight infections. Fever is only a symptom – along with other symptoms helps one determine your illness.
Fever as high as 103°for short time is helpful, because it helps the body fight infection by increasing the rate of metabolism, which enhances the phagocytosis, and increase enzymatic reaction. Fever occurs when the body's immune response is triggered by a protein called pyrogen (fever producing) . Pyrogens usually come from an outside source of the body and can stimulate production the inside of the body. Pyrogens causes the hypothalamus to increase the temperature set point (higher than 98.6° as an example). Examples of outside pyrogens are viruses, bacteria, fungi, and toxins.
High fevers over a long duration can cause problems for the body such as dehydration, and CNS problems which over the long run can be lethal to the body's homeostasis.